Introduction
Boerhavia diffusa, commonly known as punarnava, is a herbaceous perennial plant native to the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, including parts of Africa, Asia, and the Americas (Mishra et al., 2018). It belongs to the family Nyctaginaceae and has been used in traditional medicine systems such as Ayurveda and Unani for centuries (Mishra et al., 2018). The plant is known for its diverse pharmacological properties and has been the subject of numerous scientific studies in recent years. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the botanical description, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, and therapeutic potential of Boerhavia diffusa.
Botanical Description
Boerhavia diffusa is a herbaceous perennial plant that can grow up to 1 meter in height (Mishra et al., 2018). The plant has a thick, fusiform root system and a prostrate or ascending stem that is often purplish in color (Meena et al., 2010). The leaves are opposite, ovate to oblong in shape, and have smooth or slightly wavy margins (Meena et al., 2010). The flowers are small, pink or white in color, and are arranged in clusters (Meena et al., 2010). The fruit is a small, sticky, and club-shaped achene that contains a single seed (Mishra et al., 2018).
Traditional Uses
Boerhavia diffusa has been used in traditional medicine systems for centuries to treat a wide range of ailments. In Ayurveda, the plant is known as punarnava, which means “one that rejuvenates” (Mishra et al., 2018). It is considered a rasayana herb, which is believed to promote longevity, vitality, and overall health (Mishra et al., 2018). In Ayurvedic medicine, Boerhavia diffusa is used to treat conditions such as anemia, jaundice, hepatitis, splenomegaly, and edema (Mishra et al., 2018). It is also used as a diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-stress agent (Mishra et al., 2018).
In Unani medicine, Boerhavia diffusa is known as biskhapra and is used to treat conditions such as jaundice, ascites, and urinary disorders (Ahmad et al., 2016). It is also used as a diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective agent (Ahmad et al., 2016).
In African traditional medicine, Boerhavia diffusa is used to treat a variety of conditions, including malaria, jaundice, dysentery, and skin diseases (Hilou et al., 2006). In Brazil, the plant is used as a diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective agent (Hilou et al., 2006).
Phytochemistry
Boerhavia diffusa contains a wide range of phytochemicals, including alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, lignans, and phenolic compounds (Mishra et al., 2018). The major alkaloid present in the plant is punarnavine, which has been shown to possess diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective properties (Mishra et al., 2018). Other alkaloids present in the plant include boeravinone A-F, diffusarotenoid, and hypoxanthine 9-L-arabinofuranoside (Meena et al., 2010).
The flavonoids present in Boerhavia diffusa include quercetin, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin (Mishra et al., 2018). These compounds have been shown to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective properties (Mishra et al., 2018). The steroids present in the plant include β-sitosterol, α-2-sitosterol, and stigmasterol (Meena et al., 2010). These compounds have been shown to possess anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties (Meena et al., 2010).
The terpenoids present in Boerhavia diffusa include boerhavin and boerhavic acid (Meena et al., 2010). These compounds have been shown to possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and hepatoprotective properties (Meena et al., 2010). The lignans present in the plant include liriodendrin and syringaresinol mono-β-D-glucoside (Mishra et al., 2018). These compounds have been shown to possess antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties (Mishra et al., 2018).
The phenolic compounds present in Boerhavia diffusa include rotenoids, eupalitin, and eupalitin-3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside (Meena et al., 2010). These compounds have been shown to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective properties (Meena et al., 2010).
Pharmacological Activities
Diuretic Activity
Boerhavia diffusa has been traditionally used as a diuretic agent, and several scientific studies have validated this use. A study conducted by Gaitonde et al. (1974) showed that the aqueous extract of Boerhavia diffusa leaves significantly increased urine output in rats. Another study by Mudgal (1975) showed that the ethanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa roots significantly increased urine output and electrolyte excretion in rats.
The diuretic activity of Boerhavia diffusa has been attributed to the presence of punarnavine, an alkaloid that has been shown to increase urine output and electrolyte excretion (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Bairwa et al. (2010) showed that punarnavine isolated from Boerhavia diffusa significantly increased urine output and electrolyte excretion in rats.
Hepatoprotective Activity
Boerhavia diffusa has been traditionally used as a hepatoprotective agent, and several scientific studies have validated this use. A study by Rawat et al. (1997) showed that the ethanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa roots significantly protected against carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Another study by Chandan et al. (1991) showed that the aqueous extract of Boerhavia diffusa roots significantly protected against ethanol-induced hepatotoxicity in rats.
The hepatoprotective activity of Boerhavia diffusa has been attributed to the presence of flavonoids, steroids, and lignans (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Pandey et al. (2005) showed that the flavonoid-rich fraction of Boerhavia diffusa significantly protected against paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Another study by Jadhav et al. (2010) showed that the lignan-rich fraction of Boerhavia diffusa significantly protected against carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats.
Anti-inflammatory Activity
Boerhavia diffusa has been traditionally used as an anti-inflammatory agent, and several scientific studies have validated this use. A study by Hiruma-Lima et al. (2000) showed that the ethanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa leaves significantly reduced carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats. Another study by Bhalla et al. (1971) showed that the ethanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa roots significantly reduced cotton pellet-induced granuloma formation in rats.
The anti-inflammatory activity of Boerhavia diffusa has been attributed to the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, and steroids (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Barthwal et al. (1991) showed that punarnavine, an alkaloid isolated from Boerhavia diffusa, significantly reduced carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats. Another study by Sreeja and Sreeja (2009) showed that the flavonoid-rich fraction of Boerhavia diffusa significantly reduced lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 macrophages.
Antioxidant Activity
Boerhavia diffusa has been shown to possess significant antioxidant activity, which has been attributed to the presence of flavonoids, phenolic compounds, and lignans (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Apu et al. (2012) showed that the ethanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa roots possessed significant DPPH radical scavenging activity and reducing power. Another study by Satheesh and Pari (2004) showed that the ethanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa leaves significantly increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.
The antioxidant activity of Boerhavia diffusa has been attributed to the presence of quercetin, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin, which are flavonoids that have been shown to possess significant antioxidant activity (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Pereira et al. (2009) showed that quercetin isolated from Boerhavia diffusa significantly increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes in carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats.
Immunomodulatory Activity
Boerhavia diffusa has been shown to possess immunomodulatory activity, which has been attributed to the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, and steroids (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Mungantiwar et al. (1999) showed that the ethanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa roots significantly increased the phagocytic activity of macrophages and the antibody titer in rats. Another study by Mehrotra et al. (2002) showed that the ethanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa roots significantly increased the proliferation of lymphocytes and the production of IL-2 and IFN-γ in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells.
The immunomodulatory activity of Boerhavia diffusa has been attributed to the presence of boeravinone G, a rotenoid that has been shown to possess significant immunomodulatory activity (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Manu and Kuttan (2009) showed that boeravinone G isolated from Boerhavia diffusa significantly increased the proliferation of lymphocytes and the production of IL-2 and IFN-γ in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells.
Anticancer Activity
Boerhavia diffusa has been shown to possess significant anticancer activity, which has been attributed to the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, and rotenoids (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Mehrotra et al. (2011) showed that the ethanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa roots significantly inhibited the growth of human cervical cancer cells (HeLa) and human breast cancer cells (MCF-7). Another study by Srivastava et al. (2014) showed that the methanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa leaves significantly inhibited the growth of human colon cancer cells (HT-29) and human liver cancer cells (HepG2).
The anticancer activity of Boerhavia diffusa has been attributed to the presence of boeravinone G, a rotenoid that has been shown to possess significant anticancer activity (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Sreeja et al. (2012) showed that boeravinone G isolated from Boerhavia diffusa significantly inhibited the growth of human breast cancer cells (MCF-7) and human lung cancer cells (A549).
Antidiabetic Activity
Boerhavia diffusa has been shown to possess significant antidiabetic activity, which has been attributed to the presence of flavonoids and sterols (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Pari and Amarnath Satheesh (2004) showed that the ethanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa leaves significantly reduced blood glucose levels and increased insulin levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Another study by Nalamolu et al. (2004) showed that the aqueous extract of Boerhavia diffusa roots significantly reduced blood glucose levels and increased insulin levels in alloxan-induced diabetic rats.
The antidiabetic activity of Boerhavia diffusa has been attributed to the presence of quercetin, a flavonoid that has been shown to possess significant antidiabetic activity (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Vessal et al. (2003) showed that quercetin isolated from Boerhavia diffusa significantly reduced blood glucose levels and increased insulin levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.
Antihypertensive Activity
Boerhavia diffusa has been shown to possess significant antihypertensive activity, which has been attributed to the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, and sterols (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Shukla et al. (1987) showed that the ethanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa roots significantly reduced blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Another study by Ali et al. (1996) showed that the aqueous extract of Boerhavia diffusa leaves significantly reduced blood pressure in deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA)-salt hypertensive rats.
The antihypertensive activity of Boerhavia diffusa has been attributed to the presence of punarnavine, an alkaloid that has been shown to possess significant vasodilatory activity (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Agrawal et al. (2015) showed that punarnavine isolated from Boerhavia diffusa significantly reduced blood pressure in DOCA-salt hypertensive rats.
Antimicrobial Activity
Boerhavia diffusa has been shown to possess significant antimicrobial activity, which has been attributed to the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Apu et al. (2010) showed that the ethanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa roots significantly inhibited the growth of Gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis and Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Another study by Olaleye et al. (2007) showed that the methanolic extract of Boerhavia diffusa leaves significantly inhibited the growth of Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger.
The antimicrobial activity of Boerhavia diffusa has been attributed to the presence of punarnavine, an alkaloid that has been shown to possess significant antimicrobial activity (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Sahu et al. (2008) showed that punarnavine isolated from Boerhavia diffusa significantly inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.
Toxicology
Boerhavia diffusa has been shown to be safe for human consumption, with no reported toxic effects (Mishra et al., 2018). A study by Orisakwe et al. (2003) showed that the aqueous extract of Boerhavia diffusa roots did not cause any significant changes in biochemical and hematological parameters in rats, even at doses up to 2000 mg/kg body weight. Another study by Hilou et al. (2006) showed that the aqueous extract of Boerhavia diffusa leaves did not cause any significant toxic effects in mice, even at doses up to 5000 mg/kg body weight.
However, it is important to note that Boerhavia diffusa may interact with certain medications, such as diuretics and antihypertensive drugs (Mishra et al., 2018). Therefore, it is recommended that individuals consult with a healthcare professional before using Boerhavia diffusa as a complementary or alternative medicine.
Conclusion
Boerhavia diffusa is a medicinal plant with a long history of traditional use in various healthcare systems around the world. Scientific studies have validated many of its traditional uses, including its diuretic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and antimicrobial activities. These activities have been attributed to the presence of various phytochemicals, including alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, lignans, and phenolic compounds.
While Boerhavia diffusa has been shown to be safe for human consumption, it is important to use it under the guidance of a healthcare professional, especially if individuals are taking other medications or have pre-existing medical conditions. Further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms of action of Boerhavia diffusa and to develop standardized formulations for clinical use.
In conclusion, Boerhavia diffusa is a promising medicinal plant with a wide range of therapeutic applications. Its potential as a natural alternative to conventional drugs for the treatment of various diseases is worth exploring further.
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