Introduction Definition and Overview Procaine is a short‑acting, ester‑type local anesthetic that was first synthesized in the early 20th century and has since become a cornerstone of regional anesthesia, dental procedures, and surgical analgesia. It functions primarily by reversibly blocking voltage‑gated sodium channels in neuronal membranes, thereby preventing the initiation and propagation of action potentials…
Introduction Bupivacaine is a long‑acting amide‑type local anesthetic widely used in regional anesthesia, peripheral nerve blocks, and epidural analgesia. Its potency, duration of action, and relative safety profile have made it a cornerstone of perioperative pain management. Historically, bupivacaine was introduced in the early 1970s as a refined derivative of lidocaine, designed to extend blockade…
Introduction Definition and Overview Halothane (2,2,2-trifluoro-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoroethane) is a halogenated hydrocarbon classified as a volatile inhalational anesthetic. It is characterised by its potent hypnotic properties, rapid onset, and relatively low blood–gas partition coefficient, which facilitates swift induction and recovery after administration. The drug exerts its anesthetic effects primarily through modulation of neuronal ion channels and neurotransmitter…
Introduction Sevoflurane is a halogenated ether volatile anesthetic that has become a mainstay of modern intraoperative anesthesia. Its pharmacologic profile, characterized by rapid onset and offset, minimal metabolic conversion, and favorable hemodynamic stability, has rendered it particularly useful in diverse patient populations, including pediatrics and the elderly. Understanding sevoflurane’s mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, and clinical implications is…
Introduction Definition and Overview Memantine is a low‑potency, non‑competitive antagonist of the N‑methyl‑D‑aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor. It exhibits voltage‑dependent binding, allowing it to preferentially block excessive excitatory neurotransmission while sparing physiological activity. The drug is approved for the treatment of moderate to severe Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and has been investigated for other neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric…
Introduction Definition and Overview Donepezil is a centrally acting, reversible inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) that has been employed primarily in the treatment of symptomatic Alzheimer’s disease (AD). By preventing the breakdown of acetylcholine (ACh) in the synaptic cleft, donepezil increases cholinergic neurotransmission, which may ameliorate cognitive deficits and behavioral disturbances associated with neurodegeneration. The drug…
Introduction Selegiline, also known as 1-(1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline-6-yl)-2-(2-methylpropyl)amino-2-phenyl-1,3-benzodioxole, is a selective, irreversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase B (MAO‑B). Its primary therapeutic role lies in the amelioration of motor and non‑motor symptoms associated with Parkinson’s disease (PD), and it has also been investigated for neuroprotective and antidepressant effects. The compound’s development dates back to the 1970s, when early…
Introduction Definition and Overview Imipramine is a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) belonging to the dibenzazepine class, chemically designated as 3-(1,1-dimethyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-1,4-benzoxazin-3-yl)-2,2-dimethyl-1,3-propanediol. It is primarily employed in the management of depressive disorders, but its pharmacologic profile also lends itself to indications in chronic pain, migraine prophylaxis, and certain sleep disturbances. The drug exerts its effects through multimodal receptor…
Introduction Duloxetine is a well-established serotonin‑norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) that has been incorporated into therapeutic regimens for major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain, fibromyalgia, and chronic musculoskeletal pain. Although its clinical applications span multiple specialties, the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties that underpin its efficacy remain a central focus of contemporary pharmacological…
Introduction Venlafaxine is a second‑generation serotonin‑norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) widely prescribed for major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and other psychiatric conditions. It functions by modulating synaptic concentrations of serotonin and norepinephrine, thereby influencing mood, arousal, and pain perception. The therapeutic profile of venlafaxine has been established through extensive clinical trials and post‑marketing surveillance, and…