Introduction Definition and Overview Ketamine is a synthetic arylcyclohexylamine that was first synthesized in 1961 and introduced for clinical use in 1970 as a dissociative anesthetic. It is widely recognized for its unique pharmacologic profile that encompasses anesthetic, analgesic, and psychotropic properties. The drug is most commonly administered intravenously, intramuscularly, or orally, and it is…
Introduction Thiopental sodium is a short‑acting barbiturate that has been employed extensively as an intravenous anesthetic induction agent and, more recently, as an adjunct in critical care settings. The compound is the sodium salt of thiopental, a derivative of phenobarbital in which the phenolic hydroxyl group is replaced by a nitro group. This modification confers…
Introduction Propofol is a short‑acting, intravenously administered hypnotic agent widely employed in modern anesthesia and intensive care settings. Its distinctive pharmacodynamic profile, characterized by rapid onset and offset of action, renders it suitable for induction, maintenance, and procedural sedation. Historically, propofol emerged in the 1970s as a response to the limitations of older agents such…
Introduction Definition and Overview Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) is a white crystalline salt that has been employed in clinical practice primarily as a mood stabilizer. Its therapeutic action is most frequently associated with the management of bipolar disorder, though ancillary indications include schizoaffective disorder and certain depressive states. The compound is administered orally in tablet or…
Introduction Amitriptyline is a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) that has been employed in clinical practice for several decades, primarily for the treatment of depressive disorders and chronic neuropathic pain. The present chapter offers a detailed examination of the drug’s pharmacological properties, therapeutic indications, and safety considerations. It is intended to support medical and pharmacy students in…
Introduction Fluoxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), has been a cornerstone in the pharmacologic management of depressive disorders since its introduction in the late 1980s. The compound exerts its therapeutic effect primarily through inhibition of the serotonin transporter (SERT), thereby enhancing serotonergic neurotransmission. The relevance of fluoxetine extends beyond mood disorders, encompassing obsessive–compulsive disorder…
Introduction Clozapine is a distinctive atypical antipsychotic with a unique receptor-binding profile and a well-documented therapeutic efficacy in treatment‑resistant schizophrenia. Its pharmacological characteristics have prompted extensive investigation, resulting in a comprehensive body of evidence that informs both clinical practice and pharmaceutical education. This chapter is designed to acquaint medical and pharmacy students with the essential…
Introduction Chlorpromazine, first synthesized in 1950, represents the pioneering member of the phenothiazine class of antipsychotic agents. Over subsequent decades, it has served as a foundational therapeutic in the management of schizophrenia, manic episodes, and various behavioral disorders. Its long history of clinical use has also contributed to a considerable body of pharmacological, toxicological, and…
Introduction Haloperidol, a typical antipsychotic belonging to the butyrophenone class, functions primarily as a dopamine D2 receptor antagonist. It has been employed extensively for the management of acute psychosis, agitation, and certain movement disorders. The clinical utility of haloperidol is notable for its rapid onset of action when administered intravenously or intramuscularly, while oral preparations…
Introduction Levodopa (L‑DOPA) is the most widely prescribed pharmacologic agent for the symptomatic treatment of Parkinson’s disease (PD). It represents the only disease‑modifying therapy that directly replenishes central dopaminergic tone. The historical evolution of levodopa therapy, from early experimental administration to modern combination regimens, illustrates the maturation of neuropharmacology and drug delivery technologies. The relevance…