Introduction/Overview Amlodipine is a dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker (CCB) that has become a cornerstone in the management of hypertension and angina pectoris. The relevance of this agent lies in its predictable pharmacodynamic profile, favorable side‑effect spectrum, and versatility across a broad patient population. Clinicians often select amlodipine when a sustained antihypertensive effect is desired with…
Introduction / Overview Losartan is a nonpeptide antagonist of the angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptor, belonging to the class of angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs). Its primary therapeutic role has been established in the management of hypertension and in the prevention of target organ damage associated with chronic kidney disease. In addition, losartan has…
Introduction/Overview Enalapril is an orally active angiotensin‑converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor that has been widely employed in the management of arterial hypertension, chronic heart failure, and post‑myocardial infarction syndrome. Its development in the early 1980s marked a significant advance in cardiovascular pharmacotherapy, providing a therapeutic option with improved tolerability compared to earlier ACE inhibitors. Clinical relevance…
Introduction/Overview Captopril is a first‑generation angiotensin‑converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor that has played a pivotal role in the management of hypertension, heart failure, and diabetic nephropathy. Originally synthesized in the early 1970s, it was the first orally active ACE inhibitor to reach clinical practice, and its development catalyzed the extensive research that led to the current…
Introduction Definition and Overview Mannitol is a naturally occurring sugar alcohol with the chemical formula C6H14O6. It functions primarily as an osmotic diuretic and neuroprotective agent when administered intravenously, intrathecally, or orally. The pharmacologic profile of mannitol is characterized by rapid distribution to extracellular compartments, limited protein binding, and complete renal excretion without metabolic conversion….
Introduction Spironolactone is a synthetic steroidal antagonist of mineralocorticoid receptors that has been employed in clinical practice for several decades. Its primary pharmacological action involves competitive inhibition of aldosterone binding, thereby reducing sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the distal nephron. Historically, the discovery of its diuretic properties emerged from the early work of Dr….
Introduction Hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ) is a thiazide‑class diuretic that has been utilized extensively for the management of hypertension, edema associated with heart failure, hepatic cirrhosis, and nephrotic syndrome. Its mechanism of action involves inhibition of sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule of the nephron, leading to increased natriuresis and diuresis. Historically, HCTZ was introduced in…
Introduction Furosemide is a widely utilized loop diuretic that exerts potent natriuretic, diuretic, and osmotic effects through inhibition of the sodium‑potassium‑chloride cotransporter (NKCC2) located in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle. The drug’s pharmacologic profile renders it indispensable in the management of conditions characterized by fluid overload, including congestive heart failure, cirrhosis…
Introduction Definition and Overview Montelukast is a selective antagonist of cysteinyl leukotriene (CysLT) receptors, specifically targeting the CysLT1 subtype. By inhibiting leukotriene-mediated bronchoconstriction, vascular permeability, and mucus secretion, montelukast functions as a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent in the management of asthma and allergic rhinitis. The drug is marketed in oral tablet and chewable tablet forms, with…
Introduction Definition and Overview Ipratropium bromide is a short‑acting antimuscarinic bronchodilator that functions primarily as a selective antagonist of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M3) located in airway smooth muscle. It is administered via inhalation, typically in the form of a dry‑powder or aerosol, and is indicated for the symptomatic management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)…