Introduction Streptococcal pharyngitis, commonly referred to as strep throat, represents one of the most frequently encountered bacterial infections affecting the upper aerodigestive tract in both community and institutional settings. The condition is primarily caused by group A β‑hemolytic streptococci (GAS), with Streptococcus pyogenes identified as the predominant organism. Historically, the first systematic descriptions of GAS…
Introduction Pneumonia represents an acute infection of the pulmonary parenchyma that may arise from a variety of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and atypical organisms. The condition is characterized by inflammation of alveolar spaces, leading to impaired gas exchange and a spectrum of clinical manifestations. Historically, pneumonia has been a leading cause of morbidity and…
Introduction Definition and Overview COVID-19, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), represents a global public‑health challenge that emerged in late 2019. The disease spectrum ranges from asymptomatic infection to critical respiratory failure and multi‑organ dysfunction. A systematic understanding of symptomatology and viral evolution is essential for clinicians and pharmacists, particularly as therapeutic…
Introduction Influenza and the common cold represent the two most frequent viral respiratory infections encountered in clinical practice. Despite sharing many symptomatic features, they differ markedly in virology, transmission dynamics, clinical severity, and therapeutic approaches. The ability to distinguish between these entities is essential for accurate diagnosis, appropriate antimicrobial stewardship, and optimal patient counseling. Historically,…
Introduction Fibromyalgia is a chronic disorder characterized primarily by widespread musculoskeletal pain, tenderness at specific trigger points, and a constellation of associated symptoms including fatigue, sleep disturbance, cognitive dysfunction, and mood disorders. The diagnostic criteria emphasize pain present for at least three months, affecting all four quadrants of the body, accompanied by a certain number…
Introduction High cholesterol, clinically referred to as hyperlipidemia, represents a persistent elevation of lipoprotein concentrations in the bloodstream, most notably low‑density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL‑C). The condition is a well‑documented risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The pathophysiology of hyperlipidemia extends beyond isolated lipid levels, encompassing complex…
Introduction Hyperthyroidism represents a spectrum of clinical states characterized by excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormone, predominantly thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Among the etiologies, Graves’ disease stands as the most common autoimmune cause, accounting for approximately 70 % of hyperthyroid cases worldwide. The disease is marked by the presence of stimulating autoantibodies that activate…
Introduction Hypothyroidism is defined as a state of insufficient thyroid hormone activity at the cellular level, resulting in a generalized slowing of metabolic processes. The condition can arise from primary, secondary, or tertiary etiologies, each with distinct pathophysiological pathways yet converging on similar clinical manifestations. Historically, the recognition of thyroid disorders dates back to the…
Introduction Arthritis represents a spectrum of disorders characterized by joint inflammation, pain, and functional impairment. Two principal entities—osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA)—exhibit distinct epidemiological, pathological, and therapeutic profiles. OA is the most prevalent degenerative joint disease, whereas RA is a systemic autoimmune condition that preferentially targets synovial joints. Understanding the divergent mechanisms underlying these…
Introduction Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is defined as a progressive, irreversible bronchial obstruction that manifests as airflow limitation and respiratory symptoms. The disease is characterized by a persistent decline in pulmonary function, primarily due to chronic inflammation, narrowing of the small airways, and destruction of alveolar walls. Historically, COPD was first described in the…