Introduction Clopidogrel is a thienopyridine derivative that functions as an irreversible platelet antagonist. It exerts its therapeutic effect by selectively inhibiting the P2Y12 adenosine diphosphate (ADP) receptor on platelet surfaces, thereby attenuating platelet aggregation and thrombus formation. Over the past three decades, clopidogrel has become a cornerstone of antiplatelet therapy in the prevention of acute…
Introduction Warfarin is classified as a vitamin K antagonist and remains one of the most widely prescribed oral anticoagulants worldwide. Its clinical utility spans the prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism, atrial fibrillation‑associated stroke prophylaxis, and postoperative thromboprophylaxis following orthopedic and cardiac surgery. The drug’s long history of use, from its initial identification as a rodenticide…
Introduction Definition and Overview Heparin is a naturally occurring, highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan that functions as a potent anticoagulant. It is derived predominantly from porcine intestinal mucosa, bovine lung, or, increasingly, from recombinant technologies. The drug exerts its effect by potentiating antithrombin III, thereby accelerating the inactivation of thrombin (factor IIa) and factor Xa, which are…
Introduction / Overview Atorvastatin, a member of the 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG‑CoA) reductase inhibitors, has become a cornerstone in the management of dyslipidemia and prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Its widespread adoption reflects robust evidence of efficacy in lowering low‑density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL‑C) and reducing major cardiovascular events. Clinically, atorvastatin is employed both as monotherapy…
Introduction Amiodarone represents a widely utilized class III antiarrhythmic agent, distinguished by its complex pharmacologic profile and broad therapeutic indications. The current monograph offers a systematic examination of its chemical nature, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics, clinical relevance, and practical application in contemporary practice. The historical evolution of amiodarone, from its initial synthesis in the 1960s to…
Introduction Definition and Overview Lidocaine is a synthetic, amide‑type local anesthetic and antiarrhythmic agent that is widely employed in clinical practice. It functions primarily by blocking voltage‑gated sodium channels in excitable tissues, thereby inhibiting the initiation and propagation of action potentials. The drug is available in multiple formulations, including topical creams, injectable solutions, and transdermal…
Introduction Glyceryl trinitrate (GTN), commonly known as nitroglycerin, is a nitrate ester utilized predominantly as a vasodilator in the management of cardiovascular disorders, particularly angina pectoris and acute heart failure. The compound was first isolated from the bark of the Calamus genus in the late eighteenth century and subsequently synthesized in the early nineteenth century,…
Introduction Digoxin is a cardiac glycoside widely employed in the management of certain cardiac conditions, most notably atrial fibrillation and heart failure. The compound is derived from the foxglove plant, Digitalis lanata, and has a well-established therapeutic profile that has evolved through centuries of clinical use. Historically, the extraction of cardiac glycosides from foxglove roots…
Introduction Diltiazem is a phenothiazine‑derived calcium channel blocker (CCB) that occupies a central position in the management of cardiovascular disorders. The drug functions primarily as a non‑diuretic, non‑beta‑adrenergic agent, exerting its therapeutic effects through modulation of L‑type calcium channels in cardiac and vascular smooth muscle. Its unique pharmacodynamic profile distinguishes it from other CCBs, such…
Introduction Verapamil is a phenylalkylamine calcium channel blocker (CCB) that has been widely employed in the management of cardiovascular disorders. Its discovery in the early 1970s marked a significant advancement in the treatment of hypertension, angina pectoris, and certain arrhythmias. The drug’s ability to inhibit L‑type voltage‑gated calcium channels in cardiac and vascular smooth muscle…