Year: 2026

Introduction/Overview Central nervous system (CNS) pharmacology encompasses a broad array of agents that modulate neurotransmission, neuronal excitability, and neurochemical pathways implicated in mood regulation. Among these, antidepressants and lithium represent cornerstone therapies for major depressive disorder and bipolar affective disorders, respectively. Their widespread clinical application, complex pharmacodynamics, and significant safety profiles underscore the necessity for…

Introduction/Overview Antipsychotic agents constitute a cornerstone of treatment for a spectrum of psychotic disorders, including schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and certain mood disorders with psychotic features. Their utilization remains pivotal in reducing symptom burden, preventing relapse, and improving functional outcomes. As both first‑generation (typical) and second‑generation (atypical) agents are employed across diverse patient populations, a nuanced…

Introduction/Overview Epilepsy remains one of the most common neurological disorders worldwide, affecting approximately 50 million individuals across all ages. Antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) constitute the cornerstone of therapeutic intervention, providing seizure control and improving quality of life for patients. The pharmacologic landscape of AEDs has expanded considerably over the past few decades, encompassing a broad spectrum…

1. Introduction / Overview The central nervous system (CNS) is a critical target for agents that produce sedation, hypnosis, and anesthesia. These drugs are indispensable in clinical practice, ranging from preoperative preparation to management of acute agitation and seizure disorders. Understanding their pharmacological properties enables clinicians to optimize therapeutic efficacy while minimizing adverse outcomes. Learning…

Introduction/Overview Local anesthetics constitute a pivotal class of agents in clinical medicine, providing reversible blockade of nociceptive transmission without systemic sedation. Their role in neurosurgical procedures, spinal anesthesia, and peripheral nerve blocks underscores their centrality to modern anesthesia practice. The pharmacologic principles governing their action, coupled with considerations of safety and efficacy, remain essential knowledge…

Introduction / Overview General anesthetics are indispensable agents in modern medicine, facilitating surgical procedures and invasive diagnostic interventions by inducing reversible loss of consciousness, amnesia, analgesia, muscle relaxation, and autonomic stability. Their clinical utility extends beyond the operating room, encompassing critical care sedation and procedural sedation in outpatient settings. Understanding the pharmacological principles that govern…

Introduction Hematinics encompass a broad spectrum of nutrients and pharmacologic agents that support erythropoiesis and maintain adequate hemoglobin concentrations. Renal involvement is pivotal, as the kidneys both modulate erythropoietin (EPO) synthesis and influence the metabolism and clearance of many hematinic drugs. Historically, the discovery of EPO in the 1940s and its subsequent recombinant production in…

Introduction/Overview Thrombolytic agents are indispensable tools in the management of acute thrombotic events affecting the cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and renal systems. Their ability to restore perfusion by catalysing fibrin degradation supports survival and functional recovery in conditions such as acute myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, pulmonary embolism, and renal artery thrombosis. The clinical relevance of these agents…

Introduction / Overview Platelet aggregation represents a pivotal step in hemostasis and is frequently implicated in the pathogenesis of atherothrombotic events, acute coronary syndromes, and ischemic strokes. Antiplatelet agents, by inhibiting platelet function, reduce the risk of arterial thrombosis and are integral to contemporary cardiovascular therapy. The renal system, through filtration and excretion, plays a…