Introduction Nausea and vomiting represent a frequent and distressing symptom complex encountered in diverse clinical settings. These phenomena are manifestations of a coordinated neurophysiological response that serves to eliminate harmful substances from the gastrointestinal tract. Historically, the description of emetic episodes dates back to ancient medical texts, yet a comprehensive understanding has emerged only in…

Introduction / Overview Sore throat, or pharyngitis, represents a frequent clinical presentation across all age groups and constitutes a substantial burden on healthcare systems worldwide. While the majority of cases are viral and self-limiting, bacterial etiologies—particularly group A streptococcal infection—require targeted antimicrobial therapy to prevent complications such as rheumatic fever, peritonsillar abscesses, and otitis media….

Introduction Lower back pain represents a frequent clinical presentation affecting individuals across age groups and socioeconomic strata. It is typically defined as pain localized between the lower thoracic and sacral regions, often accompanied by radiating symptoms into the gluteal or lower extremity zones. Historically, descriptions of lumbar discomfort have evolved from ancient anatomical texts to…

Introduction Persistent cough, defined as a cough lasting longer than eight weeks in adults or four weeks in children, represents a common clinical presentation with multifactorial etiologies. The symptom often signals underlying respiratory or systemic pathology and can substantially reduce quality of life. Historically, cough has been studied as a protective reflex, with early descriptions…

Introduction Definition and Overview Shortness of breath, clinically known as dyspnea, represents a subjective sensation of inadequate ventilation or difficulty breathing. It manifests across a spectrum of intensity, ranging from mild discomfort during exertion to severe, life‑threatening respiratory distress. The clinical relevance of dyspnea is underscored by its prevalence in both acute and chronic medical…

Introduction Definition and Overview Dizziness is a subjective sensation that encompasses a spectrum of perceptual disturbances, including lightheadedness, vertigo, presyncope, and disequilibrium. Vertigo, a subset of dizziness, is characterized by a false sense of self‑movement or environmental motion, often described as spinning or tilting. These symptoms may arise from a variety of peripheral and central…