Introduction/Overview Glaucoma represents a heterogeneous group of optic neuropathies characterized by progressive retinal ganglion cell loss and visual field deterioration. The most common subtype is primary open‑angle glaucoma, but pigmentary, normal‑tension, and angle‑closure variants also contribute significantly to global visual impairment. Elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) is the principal modifiable risk factor, and pharmacologic reduction of…

Introduction / Overview Ganglionic blockers constitute a distinct class of autonomic antagonists that act centrally within autonomic ganglia to inhibit transmission between pre‑ and post‑ganglionic fibers. Their clinical relevance arises primarily from historical use in the management of hypertension, angina, and certain arrhythmias, and from their role as investigative tools in neuropharmacology. The pharmacologic principles…

1. Introduction/Overview Beta adrenergic blockers, commonly referred to as beta blockers, represent a pivotal class of therapeutics in cardiovascular and non‑cardiovascular medicine. Their capacity to modulate sympathetic nervous system activity through selective or non‑selective antagonism of β‑adrenergic receptors underlies their broad clinical utility. This monograph aims to furnish medical and pharmacy students with a comprehensive,…

Introduction / Overview Alpha adrenergic blockers constitute a pharmacologic class that exerts its therapeutic effects through antagonism at α-adrenergic receptors. These agents are widely employed in the management of hypertension, pheochromocytoma, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), and erectile dysfunction, among other indications. Their clinical relevance is underscored by their ability to modulate vascular tone, smooth muscle…

Introduction and Overview Sympathomimetic agents comprise a diverse class of drugs that emulate the physiological actions of endogenous catecholamines, principally norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine. Their ability to activate adrenergic receptors underpins a broad spectrum of therapeutic applications, ranging from acute cardiovascular support to chronic management of respiratory disorders. The clinical relevance of sympathomimetics is underscored…

Introduction/Overview Anticholinergic compounds constitute a diverse group of agents that inhibit cholinergic neurotransmission by antagonizing muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) and, in some instances, nicotinic receptors. They have long been employed across a spectrum of clinical conditions, ranging from overactive bladder to perioperative sedation. The clinical relevance of anticholinergics lies in their capacity to modulate parasympathetic…

Introduction/Overview Parasympathomimetics, also termed cholinergic agonists, comprise a diverse group of agents that replicate the actions of the endogenous neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) on muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. Their capacity to stimulate parasympathetic efferents renders them indispensable in a variety of therapeutic contexts, from bronchodilation and mydriasis to postoperative ileus management and ocular hypertension control. The…

Introduction and Overview Skeletal muscle relaxants constitute a broad class of agents employed to reduce involuntary muscular tone, mitigate spasticity, and facilitate surgical procedures by inducing reversible paralysis. Their utility spans neurology, orthopedics, anesthesiology, and critical care. Understanding their pharmacologic profiles is essential for optimizing therapeutic outcomes and minimizing harm. Learning Objectives Identify the principal…

Introduction / Overview Local anesthetics represent a cornerstone of modern medical and dental practice, enabling pain control during a wide array of procedures. Their ability to reversibly block nerve conduction without inducing loss of consciousness has made them indispensable in regional anesthesia, dental infiltration, and minor surgical interventions. Understanding their pharmacological properties is essential for…

Introduction / Overview General anesthetics constitute a diverse group of agents that produce a reversible, drug‑induced, loss of consciousness and immobility, accompanied by analgesia, amnesia, and muscle relaxation. Their clinical relevance is underscored by the requirement for safe and effective induction and maintenance of anesthesia during elective and emergency surgical procedures. Understanding the pharmacological principles…