Introduction / Overview Oral contraceptives (OCs) constitute a cornerstone of modern reproductive health, offering reliable, reversible, and relatively low‑cost contraception to millions of women worldwide. Emergency contraception (EC) provides a critical safety net for unintended pregnancies, bridging gaps when standard contraception fails or is unavailable. The clinical relevance of these drug classes is underscored by…

Introduction/Overview Estrogens and progestins constitute the core of female reproductive hormone replacement strategies. Their therapeutic application extends beyond contraception to the mitigation of menopausal symptoms, osteoporosis prevention, and management of certain gynecologic disorders. The clinical relevance of these agents is underscored by the prevalence of hormone-related conditions and the widespread adoption of hormone replacement therapy…

Introduction and Overview Endocrine pharmacology encompasses the study of hormone‑based therapeutics, with corticosteroids representing a pivotal class of agents that modulate diverse physiological pathways. Glucocorticoids, which primarily influence carbohydrate, protein, and lipid metabolism, as well as immune function, and mineralocorticoids, which regulate sodium and potassium balance, are frequently prescribed across a broad spectrum of clinical…

Introduction/Overview Diabetes mellitus, particularly type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), represents a growing global health challenge, characterized by chronic hyperglycaemia resulting from insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion. Oral antidiabetic drugs constitute the cornerstone of pharmacologic management, offering diverse mechanisms to ameliorate glycaemic control while addressing underlying metabolic derangements. Understanding the pharmacological underpinnings of these agents…

Introduction/Overview Insulin remains the cornerstone of therapy for patients with diabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by impaired glucose regulation. The clinical relevance of insulin pharmacology is underscored by the global prevalence of diabetes, the high morbidity associated with hyperglycaemia, and the necessity for precise glycaemic control to prevent long‑term complications such as retinopathy,…

Introduction/Overview The thyroid gland regulates metabolic rate, growth, and development through secretion of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Disruptions in thyroid hormone production or action give rise to a spectrum of endocrine disorders, most notably hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Accurate pharmacologic intervention is essential for restoring euthyroidism and preventing both acute and chronic complications. This chapter…

Introduction / Overview The anterior pituitary gland functions as a master regulator of endocrine activity, releasing hormones that influence growth, metabolism, reproduction, and lactation. Anterior pituitary hormone analogues and somatostatin modulators constitute a significant portion of clinical endocrine therapeutics. Their application spans a range of disorders including growth hormone deficiency, acromegaly, pituitary adenomas, and neuroendocrine…

Introduction / Overview Alzheimer’s disease (AD) represents the most common form of dementia and imposes a significant burden on patients, caregivers, and health systems worldwide. The progressive decline in cognition, memory, and functional capacity necessitates a therapeutic approach that addresses both symptomatic relief and potential disease modification. Current pharmacotherapy focuses on cholinergic enhancement, glutamatergic modulation,…

Introduction/Overview Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized primarily by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, leading to motor manifestations such as bradykinesia, rest tremor, rigidity, and postural instability. The prevalence of PD increases markedly with age, affecting approximately 1–2% of individuals over 60 years of age, and…

Introduction/Overview Opioid analgesics constitute a pivotal class of medications in the management of acute and chronic pain. Their profound efficacy in attenuating nociceptive signals within the central nervous system (CNS) has rendered them indispensable in diverse clinical contexts, ranging from postoperative recovery to oncologic palliation. Concurrently, opioid antagonists have emerged as critical agents for mitigating…