Introduction Gastro‑esophageal reflux disease (GERD) represents a prevalent functional disorder in which the gastro‑esophageal junction fails to maintain adequate barrier function, allowing gastric contents to regurgitate into the esophagus. The condition manifests through a spectrum of symptoms, most notably heartburn and regurgitation, and can progress to mucosal injury and complications such as esophagitis, strictures, and…
Introduction Definition and Overview Anti‑aging skincare refers to the application of topical agents that modify the physiological or biochemical processes of the skin to retard or reverse phenotypic changes associated with chronological and photo‑induced aging. Two of the most extensively studied constituents in this domain are retinol, a derivative of vitamin A, and ascorbic acid…
Introduction Dermatophyte infections of the skin, commonly referred to as tinea infections, encompass a spectrum of clinically distinct entities, with athlete’s foot (tinea pedis) and ringworm (tinea corporis) among the most frequently encountered. These superficial mycoses result from colonization of keratinized tissues by filamentous fungi belonging primarily to the genera Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton. The…
Introduction Urticaria, commonly referred to as hives, represents a frequent dermatologic manifestation characterized by transient, pruritic wheals that arise from cutaneous edema and vasodilatation. The clinical presentation often includes erythematous or pale lesions that may coalesce into larger plaques and frequently resolve within hours to days. Historically, the condition has been described as “hives” since…
Introduction Rosacea represents a chronic, relapsing inflammatory disorder of the facial skin, predominantly affecting the central face. Its clinical spectrum ranges from erythema and telangiectasia to papules, pustules, and phymatous changes. The disease typically manifests in individuals aged 30–50 years, with a higher prevalence among fair‑skinned, middle‑western European populations. Although the precise etiology remains incompletely…
Introduction Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory dermatosis characterized by erythematous, scaly plaques that frequently involve extensor surfaces, scalp, and intertriginous zones. The disease exhibits a complex interplay between genetic predisposition, immune dysregulation, and environmental triggers. Historically, descriptions of psoriatic lesions date back to ancient Egyptian and Greek manuscripts, yet systematic therapeutic approaches only emerged in…
Introduction Atopic dermatitis, commonly referred to as eczema, is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder that frequently manifests in infancy and childhood but may persist into adulthood. The disease is characterized by pruritic, erythematous, and excoriated lesions that undergo cycles of flare and remission. While a multifactorial etiology underpins eczema, the interaction between genetic predisposition, epidermal…
Introduction Definition and Overview Acne vulgaris is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the pilosebaceous unit characterized by comedones, papules, pustules, nodules, and cysts. The condition primarily affects adolescents and young adults, though it can persist into adulthood. Treatment strategies aim to reduce bacterial colonisation, secrete activity, keratinisation, and inflammation, thereby restoring the epidermal barrier and…
Introduction Definition and Overview Male pattern baldness, also referred to as androgenetic alopecia, is a common, progressive form of hair loss that typically follows a characteristic pattern of receding frontal hairline and vertex thinning. The condition is characterized by follicular miniaturization, resulting in thinner, shorter, and less pigmented hairs. The disorder affects a substantial proportion…
Introduction Definition and Overview Low testosterone is defined as a serum total testosterone concentration that falls below the lower reference limit for the adult male population, typically < 300 ng/dL (10.4 nmol/L) in most laboratory assays. When accompanied by a compatible symptom profile, the condition is often referred to as androgen deficiency or hypogonadism. The…