Introduction/Overview Menopause represents the permanent cessation of ovarian follicular activity, typically occurring between the ages of 45 and 55. The transition is accompanied by a decline in circulating estrogen and progesterone, leading to a constellation of somatic and psychosocial manifestations. Clinical management frequently involves hormone replacement therapy (HRT) to alleviate symptoms and mitigate long‑term health…
Introduction Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a complex endocrine disorder that represents one of the most common causes of anovulatory infertility in women of reproductive age. The syndrome is characterized by a constellation of clinical features, including hyperandrogenism, chronic anovulation, and polycystic ovarian morphology on ultrasonography. Although diagnostic criteria have evolved over the past few…
Introduction Early signs of pregnancy refer to the physiological, biochemical, and symptomatic changes that occur in the maternal body shortly after conception and implantation. These indicators provide essential information for clinicians, pharmacists, and students in identifying pregnancy at a stage where interventions can significantly influence maternal and fetal outcomes. Historically, the recognition of early pregnancy…
Introduction Definition and Overview Obsessive‑compulsive disorder (OCD) is a chronic psychiatric condition characterized by recurrent intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) performed in an attempt to relieve the distress associated with the obsessions. The phenomenology of OCD is highly heterogeneous, encompassing a wide range of symptom dimensions such as contamination, symmetry,…
Introduction Social anxiety disorder (SAD), also referred to as social phobia, represents a persistent pattern of intense fear or apprehension in social or performance situations. The fear typically centers around concerns of negative evaluation, embarrassment, or humiliation. Individuals with SAD often avoid social interactions or endure them with significant distress, which can lead to functional…
Introduction Postpartum depression (PPD) is a mood disorder that emerges within the first year following childbirth. It is characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities, and impaired functioning in social and occupational domains. The prevalence of PPD is estimated to range from 10 % to 20 % of new mothers, depending on assessment…
Introduction Definition and Overview Panic attacks are acute, episodic manifestations of intense fear or discomfort that arise abruptly and reach a peak within minutes. During an episode, autonomic, somatic, and cognitive symptoms often coexist, producing a profound sense of impending doom. Clinical recognition of panic attacks relies on the presence of at least four of…
Introduction Definition and Overview Insomnia is characterized by persistent difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep, often accompanied by non‑restorative sleep and daytime impairment. The clinical presentation may include short sleep duration, fragmented sleep architecture, or both. The diagnostic criteria emphasize chronicity (≥3 nights per week) and a minimum duration of 3 months, although acute episodes of…
Introduction Definition and Overview Post‑traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition that may develop following exposure to an event or series of events that involve actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence. Characterised by intrusive recollections, avoidance of trauma‑related stimuli, negative alterations in cognition and mood, and heightened arousal, PTSD can persist…
Introduction Definition and Overview Adult attention‑deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are maladaptive and impair daily functioning. The diagnostic framework requires that symptoms were present before the age of 12 and continue into adulthood, manifesting in at least two settings, and causing clinically significant…