Introduction Coronary artery disease (CAD) remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. It is characterized by the progressive narrowing or occlusion of the epicardial coronary arteries, primarily due to atherosclerotic plaque accumulation. The clinical manifestations range from asymptomatic ischemia to acute coronary syndromes, including unstable angina and myocardial infarction. Understanding the spectrum of…
Introduction Heart failure (HF) is a progressive syndrome characterized by the inability of the myocardium to supply adequate cardiac output to satisfy the metabolic demands of the body. The clinical spectrum ranges from asymptomatic structural abnormalities to acute decompensated episodes that necessitate intensive care admission. Historically, the recognition of HF as a distinct clinical entity…
Introduction Definition and Overview Atrial fibrillation (AFib) is a supraventricular tachyarrhythmia characterized by irregular atrial electrical activity and loss of effective atrial contraction. The atrial rate often exceeds 350 beats per minute, while the ventricular response becomes irregularly irregular, reflecting the chaotic conduction through the atrioventricular node. The clinical presentation ranges from asymptomatic to debilitating…
Introduction Definition and Overview The FAST method represents a mnemonic framework employed to facilitate rapid identification of clinical manifestations associated with acute cerebrovascular events. FAST stands for Facial drooping, Arm weakness, Speech difficulty, and Time, encapsulating key neurological deficits that arise when arterial supply to the brain is compromised. The method has been integrated into…
Introduction Early recognition of myocardial infarction (MI) is essential for timely intervention and improved patient outcomes. The concept of early warning signs encompasses a spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from classic chest discomfort to subtle, atypical presentations that may be overlooked, especially in populations such as the elderly, women, and individuals with diabetes mellitus. Historically,…
Introduction/Overview Anticoagulants constitute a cornerstone of contemporary cardiovascular therapeutics, providing indispensable protection against thromboembolic events in a variety of clinical settings. The clinical relevance of these agents is underscored by their widespread utilization in conditions such as atrial fibrillation, venous thromboembolism, mechanical prosthetic heart valve management, and perioperative prophylaxis. The complexity of coagulation pathways, coupled…
Introduction/Overview Cardiac glycosides and inotropes represent a cornerstone of contemporary heart failure management, offering unique hemodynamic benefits through modulation of intracellular calcium handling. Historically derived from botanical sources, these agents have evolved into a diverse class encompassing natural products such as digoxin, digitoxin, and ouabain, as well as synthetic analogues and non‑cardiac inotropes (e.g., milrinone,…
Introduction and Overview Hypertension remains a leading contributor to cardiovascular morbidity and mortality worldwide. Effective management of elevated blood pressure necessitates a nuanced understanding of the pharmacological agents available, their mechanisms of action, and the clinical contexts in which they are employed. The selection of an antihypertensive regimen should be guided by evidence-based principles, patient-specific…
Introduction/Overview Beta blockers represent a pivotal class of medications in the management of diverse cardiovascular disorders. Their capacity to modulate sympathetic nervous system activity has rendered them indispensable in conditions ranging from hypertension to heart failure and arrhythmias. The wide therapeutic spectrum necessitates a comprehensive understanding of their pharmacological properties, clinical application, and safety profile….
Introduction/Overview Brief Introduction to the Topic Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors constitute a cornerstone in the management of hypertension, heart failure, and diabetic nephropathy. Their capacity to modulate the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) underpins a broad spectrum of therapeutic benefits, yet their pharmacologic profile demands careful consideration of pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and patient-specific variables. Clinical Relevance and…