Introduction Fibromyalgia is a chronic disorder characterized primarily by widespread musculoskeletal pain, tenderness at specific trigger points, and a constellation of associated symptoms including fatigue, sleep disturbance, cognitive dysfunction, and mood disorders. The diagnostic criteria emphasize pain present for at least three months, affecting all four quadrants of the body, accompanied by a certain number…
Introduction High cholesterol, clinically referred to as hyperlipidemia, represents a persistent elevation of lipoprotein concentrations in the bloodstream, most notably low‑density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL‑C). The condition is a well‑documented risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The pathophysiology of hyperlipidemia extends beyond isolated lipid levels, encompassing complex…
Introduction Hyperthyroidism represents a spectrum of clinical states characterized by excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormone, predominantly thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Among the etiologies, Graves’ disease stands as the most common autoimmune cause, accounting for approximately 70 % of hyperthyroid cases worldwide. The disease is marked by the presence of stimulating autoantibodies that activate…
Introduction Hypothyroidism is defined as a state of insufficient thyroid hormone activity at the cellular level, resulting in a generalized slowing of metabolic processes. The condition can arise from primary, secondary, or tertiary etiologies, each with distinct pathophysiological pathways yet converging on similar clinical manifestations. Historically, the recognition of thyroid disorders dates back to the…
Introduction Arthritis represents a spectrum of disorders characterized by joint inflammation, pain, and functional impairment. Two principal entities—osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA)—exhibit distinct epidemiological, pathological, and therapeutic profiles. OA is the most prevalent degenerative joint disease, whereas RA is a systemic autoimmune condition that preferentially targets synovial joints. Understanding the divergent mechanisms underlying these…
Introduction Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is defined as a progressive, irreversible bronchial obstruction that manifests as airflow limitation and respiratory symptoms. The disease is characterized by a persistent decline in pulmonary function, primarily due to chronic inflammation, narrowing of the small airways, and destruction of alveolar walls. Historically, COPD was first described in the…
Introduction Definition and Overview Asthma is a heterogeneous chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, airflow limitation, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness. The clinical presentation typically includes wheeze, breathlessness, chest tightness, and cough, often with nocturnal or early‑morning exacerbations. Affected individuals may experience episodic airway obstruction that is reversible either spontaneously or…
Introduction Definition and Overview High blood pressure, commonly referred to as hypertension, is defined as a sustained elevation of arterial pressure above 140/90 mmHg in adults. This chronic condition is characterized by persistent increases in both systolic and diastolic pressures, contributing to heightened cardiovascular strain and end organ dysfunction over time. The prevalence of hypertension has…
Introduction Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by progressive destruction of insulin‑secreting β‑cells within the pancreatic islets of Langerhans, resulting in absolute insulin deficiency. The clinical presentation typically emerges during childhood or adolescence, although onset can occur at any age. The disease trajectory is marked by chronic hyperglycaemia, necessitating lifelong insulin replacement therapy…
Introduction/Overview Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) represents a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency. The prevalence of T2DM continues to rise worldwide, imposing significant burdens on patients, healthcare systems, and societies at large. Effective pharmacological management is essential for glycaemic control, prevention of microvascular and macrovascular complications, and improvement of…