Introduction The chronic infections caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) represent major global public health concerns, contributing significantly to morbidity and mortality associated with liver disease, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. HBV is a partially double‑stranded DNA virus that infects hepatocytes and establishes persistent infection through integration of covalently closed circular…
References Bennett JE, Dolin R, Blaser MJ. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2019. Bennett PN, Brown MJ, Sharma P. Clinical Pharmacology. 12th ed. Edinburgh: Elsevier; 2019. Waller DG, Sampson AP. Medical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 6th ed. Edinburgh: Elsevier; 2022. Feather A, Randall D, Waterhouse M. Kumar…
Introduction Shingles, also known as herpes zoster, is a reactivation of latent varicella‑zoster virus (VZV) that manifests as a painful dermatomal rash. The clinical picture is dominated by vesicular lesions that follow a distinct dermatome, often accompanied by significant neuropathic pain. The disease burden is substantial, affecting millions worldwide each year, with prevalence increasing in…
Introduction Lyme disease represents a vector‑borne zoonosis caused primarily by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi in North America and by related genospecies in Europe and Asia. The disease is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected Ixodes ticks, with the third stage of the tick cycle being the most clinically relevant for human infection. Over…
Introduction Lyme disease is a vector‑borne zoonotic infection caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi and related species. It is transmitted primarily through the bite of infected Ixodes ticks, which are widely distributed across temperate regions of North America, Europe, and Asia. The disease presents with a variable spectrum of manifestations, ranging from an initial erythema migrans rash…
Introduction Tuberculosis (TB) remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, despite the availability of effective pharmacotherapies. The disease, caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, primarily affects the lungs but can disseminate to extra‑pulmonary sites, producing a spectrum of clinical manifestations. The enduring public health challenge stems from its latent phase, variable presentation, and…
Introduction Streptococcal pharyngitis, commonly referred to as strep throat, represents a significant public health concern due to its prevalence, potential complications, and capacity for rapid spread within community settings. The condition is caused primarily by group A β‑hemolytic streptococci (GAS) of the species Streptococcus pyogenes, which colonize the oropharynx and nasopharynx of susceptible individuals. Historically,…
Introduction Streptococcal pharyngitis, commonly referred to as strep throat, represents one of the most frequently encountered bacterial infections affecting the upper aerodigestive tract in both community and institutional settings. The condition is primarily caused by group A β‑hemolytic streptococci (GAS), with Streptococcus pyogenes identified as the predominant organism. Historically, the first systematic descriptions of GAS…
Introduction Pneumonia represents an acute infection of the pulmonary parenchyma that may arise from a variety of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and atypical organisms. The condition is characterized by inflammation of alveolar spaces, leading to impaired gas exchange and a spectrum of clinical manifestations. Historically, pneumonia has been a leading cause of morbidity and…
Introduction Definition and Overview COVID-19, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), represents a global public‑health challenge that emerged in late 2019. The disease spectrum ranges from asymptomatic infection to critical respiratory failure and multi‑organ dysfunction. A systematic understanding of symptomatology and viral evolution is essential for clinicians and pharmacists, particularly as therapeutic…