Introduction Salmeterol is a long‑acting β2‑adrenergic receptor agonist (LABA) employed primarily for the maintenance treatment of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The molecule is designed to provide sustained bronchodilation over a 12‑hour period, thereby reducing exacerbations and improving lung function when combined with inhaled corticosteroids. Historically, the development of LABAs represented a significant…
Introduction Misoprostol is a synthetic analogue of prostaglandin E1 (PGE₁) that possesses a broad spectrum of pharmacologic activities. It is primarily recognized for its therapeutic roles in obstetric and gynecologic practice, ulcer prophylaxis, and as an agent in medical abortion. As a proton-sparing drug, misoprostol mimics the natural hormone’s effects on smooth muscle tone and…
Introduction Sumatriptan is a selective serotonin (5‑hydroxytryptamine, 5‑HT) receptor agonist that has been employed primarily for the acute treatment of migraine and cluster headaches. The compound was first synthesized in the early 1980s and subsequently approved for clinical use in the late 1980s, rapidly becoming a cornerstone of migraine management. Its introduction represented a significant…
Introduction Pentazocine is a synthetic opioid analgesic that has been employed in the management of moderate to severe pain for several decades. Recognized for its unique pharmacodynamic profile, it functions as a kappa‑opioid receptor agonist and a partial mu‑opioid receptor agonist or antagonist, depending on the dosage and patient context. The dual activity contributes to…
Introduction Buprenorphine is a semi-synthetic opioid that has garnered significant attention for its dual role as a partial agonist at the mu‑opioid receptor and as an antagonist at kappa- and delta-opioid receptors. The drug’s unique pharmacodynamic profile confers a ceiling effect on respiratory depression, rendering it a safer alternative for opioid dependence therapy and analgesia…
Introduction Methadone is a synthetic opioid analgesic first synthesized in 1937 by German chemist Adolf von Baeyer. Over subsequent decades, it has evolved into a cornerstone of both acute and chronic pain management, as well as a primary agent in opioid substitution therapy (OST) for heroin dependence. Its unique pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties enable sustained…
Introduction Definition and Overview Fentanyl is a synthetic, potent μ‑opioid receptor agonist characterized by a high lipid solubility and rapid onset of action. The compound, chemically classified as a piperidine derivative, is frequently employed in clinical settings for analgesia, anesthesia, and sedation. Its pharmacological profile is distinguished by a potency approximately 100–200 times greater than…
Introduction Tramadol is a synthetic opioid analgesic that has gained substantial clinical prominence as a versatile agent for the management of moderate to moderately severe pain. Initially synthesized in the 1970s as a non‑narcotic analgesic, its pharmacologic profile was later recognized to encompass both opioid receptor agonism and monoamine reuptake inhibition, thereby distinguishing it from…
Introduction Mefenamic acid is a non‑steroidal anti‑inflammatory drug (NSAID) belonging to the anthranilic acid derivative class. It functions primarily by inhibiting cyclo‑oxygenase (COX) enzymes, thereby reducing prostaglandin synthesis. The compound was first synthesized in the late 1950s and received regulatory approval in the early 1960s for the treatment of menstrual pain and mild to moderate…
1. Introduction 1.1 Definition and Overview Ketorolac tromethamine is a synthetic non‑steroidal anti‑inflammatory drug (NSAID) belonging to the oxicam class. It exhibits potent analgesic, antipyretic, and anti‑inflammatory properties predominantly through inhibition of cyclooxygenase enzymes. The drug is commonly administered in short courses, typically not exceeding 5 days for oral or 7 days for intravenous use,…