Introduction Primaquine is a synthetic 4‑amino‑5‑nitro‑2‑methyl‑1,2,3,4‑tetrahydroquinoline that functions as a potent antimalarial agent. It is uniquely effective against the hypnozoite stages of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale, thereby providing radical cure and preventing relapse. The drug was first synthesized in the 1940s by the U.S. Army during the effort to control malaria in military personnel…
Introduction Ritonavir is a synthetic non‑peptidic protease inhibitor originally developed for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV‑1) infection. Although its direct antiviral potency is modest compared with other protease inhibitors, it has become indispensable as a pharmacokinetic enhancer that prolongs the plasma exposure of co‑administered agents. Ritonavir’s unique ability to inhibit cytochrome P450 3A4…
Introduction Efavirenz is a non‑nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) that has played a pivotal role in combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) for patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV‑1). Its emergence in the early 1990s introduced a novel class of agents that bind directly to the reverse transcriptase enzyme, inducing a conformational change that prevents…
Introduction Tenofovir is a nucleotide analog reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) that has become a cornerstone of antiretroviral therapy for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and a first‑line agent for chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. The compound was first synthesized in the 1970s but did not gain clinical relevance until the late 1990s, when it…
Introduction Lamivudine (3TC) is a nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) that has been widely employed in the management of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and hepatitis B virus (HBV) disease. The drug’s introduction in the early 1990s marked a pivotal advancement in antiretroviral therapy, owing to its favorable safety profile and oral bioavailability. Over…
Introduction Oseltamivir is a synthetic neuraminidase inhibitor that has become a cornerstone in the management of influenza A and B infections. Originally developed in the 1970s, the drug gained widespread clinical acceptance following the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, which highlighted the need for effective antiviral therapy. Oseltamivir functions by blocking the release of progeny virions from…
Introduction Definition and Overview Griseoful is a systemic antifungal agent belonging to the class of fungicidal macrolide compounds. Its primary therapeutic action is directed against dermatophytes, which are fungi that infect keratinized tissues such as skin, hair, and nails. The drug has been widely employed in the treatment of superficial mycoses, especially tinea capitis, tinea…
Introduction Terbinafine is a synthetic allylamine antifungal agent that has become a cornerstone in the treatment of superficial mycoses. Its high potency against dermatophytes, coupled with a favourable safety profile, renders it a preferred choice in clinical practice. Historically, the discovery of terbinafine in the late 1970s marked a significant advance in antifungal therapy, offering…
Introduction / Overview Voriconazole represents a pivotal advance in the therapeutic armamentarium against invasive fungal infections. As a triazole antifungal, it offers broad-spectrum activity against Aspergillus spp., Candida spp., and several zygomycetes, rendering it indispensable in both prophylactic and therapeutic contexts. The drug has become a first-line agent for invasive aspergillosis and is frequently employed…
Introduction / Overview Itraconazole is a triazole antifungal agent that has become a cornerstone in the management of numerous superficial and systemic mycoses. The drug was first introduced in the early 1980s and has since been integrated into clinical practice worldwide. Its broad spectrum of activity, coupled with convenient oral dosing options, renders itraconazole an…