Introduction Betamethasone is a potent synthetic glucocorticoid widely employed for its anti‑inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties. It is frequently administered in topical, intramuscular, and systemic formulations to manage a broad spectrum of conditions that involve inflammatory or immune‑mediated pathology. The present chapter aims to elucidate the pharmacological profile of betamethasone, its clinical relevance, and practical application…
Introduction Glucagon is a peptide hormone produced by the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans. It functions as a counter-regulatory hormone to insulin, primarily stimulating hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to increase circulating glucose concentrations. The therapeutic use of glucagon extends beyond hypoglycemia management, encompassing emergency treatment protocols, research applications, and adjunctive therapies in…
Introduction/Overview Dapagliflozin is a selective sodium‑glucose co‑transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor that has revolutionized the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). Its unique mechanism of action, favorable safety profile, and emerging evidence for cardiovascular and renal protection have positioned it as a cornerstone in contemporary therapeutic algorithms. The scope…
Introduction / Overview Empagliflozin is a selective inhibitor of the sodium‑glucose co‑transporter‑2 (SGLT2) and represents a cornerstone in the contemporary pharmacotherapy of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The drug’s ability to lower plasma glucose by promoting glucosuria has been complemented by emerging evidence of cardiovascular and renal benefits, thereby extending its therapeutic relevance beyond glycaemic control….
Introduction/Overview Vildagliptin is a dipeptidyl peptidase‑4 (DPP‑4) inhibitor employed in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The drug represents a pivotal class of antihyperglycemic agents that modulate incretin hormones, thereby improving glycaemic control while preserving a low risk of hypoglycaemia when used as monotherapy or in combination with other agents. The significance of…
Introduction/Overview Brief Introduction Sitagliptin is a selective inhibitor of the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase‑4 (DPP‑4). It was approved for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in 2006 and has since become a cornerstone of combination therapy in many clinical settings. The drug is available in oral tablet form and is characterized by a favorable…
Introduction Definition and Overview Pioglitazone is a synthetic thiazolidinedione that functions predominantly as an agonist of peroxisome proliferator‑activated receptor gamma (PPAR‑γ). By modulating transcriptional activity, it influences insulin sensitivity and glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The drug is available in oral tablet formulations and is typically administered once daily in…
Introduction Glimepiride is a second‑generation sulfonylurea employed predominantly in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). It functions by stimulating insulin secretion from pancreatic β‑cells, thereby lowering postprandial and fasting plasma glucose levels. The drug has been available since the late 1980s and has become a cornerstone in many combination therapies alongside metformin, thiazolidinediones,…
Introduction Definition and Overview Procaine is a short‑acting, ester‑type local anesthetic that was first synthesized in the early 20th century and has since become a cornerstone of regional anesthesia, dental procedures, and surgical analgesia. It functions primarily by reversibly blocking voltage‑gated sodium channels in neuronal membranes, thereby preventing the initiation and propagation of action potentials…
Introduction Bupivacaine is a long‑acting amide‑type local anesthetic widely used in regional anesthesia, peripheral nerve blocks, and epidural analgesia. Its potency, duration of action, and relative safety profile have made it a cornerstone of perioperative pain management. Historically, bupivacaine was introduced in the early 1970s as a refined derivative of lidocaine, designed to extend blockade…