Introduction Definition and Overview Carbamazepine is a dibenzazepine anticonvulsant that is widely used for the management of partial seizures, generalized tonic–clonic seizures, trigeminal neuralgia, and bipolar disorder. The drug functions primarily by stabilizing hyperexcited neuronal membranes and inhibiting repetitive firing of action potentials. It has a complex pharmacological profile that encompasses both central nervous system…
Introduction Phenytoin is a phenylhydantoin derivative that constitutes a cornerstone in the management of generalized and focal seizures. The compound has been in clinical use since the 1930s and remains integral to antiepileptic therapy due to its efficacy and unique pharmacodynamic profile. Historically, phenytoin was discovered during the search for anticonvulsant agents that could address…
Introduction Phenobarbitone, also known as phenobarbital, is a barbiturate derivative widely employed as an antiepileptic agent. Its therapeutic efficacy, combined with a relatively favorable safety profile, has secured its position as a first‑line treatment for various seizure disorders. The compound was first synthesized in the late nineteenth century and entered clinical use in the early…
Introduction/Overview Diazepam represents a cornerstone within the benzodiazepine class, widely employed for its anxiolytic, muscle‑relaxant, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, and amnestic properties. Its pharmacologic versatility has led to extensive utilization across diverse clinical settings, ranging from acute seizure management to preoperative sedation. Because of its long half‑life and extensive metabolic profile, diazepam necessitates careful consideration regarding dosing,…
Introduction Erythropoietin (EPO) is a glycoprotein hormone that plays a central role in erythropoiesis, the process by which red blood cells are formed. It is primarily synthesized in the kidneys, with additional expression in the liver during fetal development. The discovery of EPO in the 1970s revolutionized the management of anemia, particularly in chronic kidney…
Introduction Cyanocobalamin is the synthetic form of vitamin B12 and is the most commonly prescribed cobalamin analogue in clinical practice. It functions as a coenzyme in essential metabolic pathways, including DNA synthesis, methylation reactions, and myelin formation. Historically, cyanocobalamin was first isolated in the early 20th century and subsequently introduced as a therapeutic agent for…
Introduction Definition and Overview Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4·7H2O) is an inorganic salt commonly employed as an oral iron supplement. It delivers elemental iron in the +2 oxidation state and is available in various dosage forms, including tablets, capsules, and liquid preparations. The compound is frequently prescribed to correct iron deficiency states, particularly iron deficiency anemia, and…
Introduction Streptokinase is a fibrinolytic agent derived from certain strains of Streptococcus pyogenes. It functions by activating plasminogen into plasmin, thereby promoting the dissolution of fibrin clots. The therapeutic utility of streptokinase has been established in acute myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism, and other thrombotic conditions. The historical evolution of streptokinase, from its discovery in the…
Introduction Clopidogrel is a thienopyridine derivative that functions as an irreversible platelet antagonist. It exerts its therapeutic effect by selectively inhibiting the P2Y12 adenosine diphosphate (ADP) receptor on platelet surfaces, thereby attenuating platelet aggregation and thrombus formation. Over the past three decades, clopidogrel has become a cornerstone of antiplatelet therapy in the prevention of acute…
Introduction Warfarin is classified as a vitamin K antagonist and remains one of the most widely prescribed oral anticoagulants worldwide. Its clinical utility spans the prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism, atrial fibrillation‑associated stroke prophylaxis, and postoperative thromboprophylaxis following orthopedic and cardiac surgery. The drug’s long history of use, from its initial identification as a rodenticide…