Introduction Definition and Overview Heparin is a naturally occurring, highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan that functions as a potent anticoagulant. It is derived predominantly from porcine intestinal mucosa, bovine lung, or, increasingly, from recombinant technologies. The drug exerts its effect by potentiating antithrombin III, thereby accelerating the inactivation of thrombin (factor IIa) and factor Xa, which are…
Introduction / Overview Atorvastatin, a member of the 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG‑CoA) reductase inhibitors, has become a cornerstone in the management of dyslipidemia and prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Its widespread adoption reflects robust evidence of efficacy in lowering low‑density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL‑C) and reducing major cardiovascular events. Clinically, atorvastatin is employed both as monotherapy…
Introduction Amiodarone represents a widely utilized class III antiarrhythmic agent, distinguished by its complex pharmacologic profile and broad therapeutic indications. The current monograph offers a systematic examination of its chemical nature, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics, clinical relevance, and practical application in contemporary practice. The historical evolution of amiodarone, from its initial synthesis in the 1960s to…
Introduction Definition and Overview Lidocaine is a synthetic, amide‑type local anesthetic and antiarrhythmic agent that is widely employed in clinical practice. It functions primarily by blocking voltage‑gated sodium channels in excitable tissues, thereby inhibiting the initiation and propagation of action potentials. The drug is available in multiple formulations, including topical creams, injectable solutions, and transdermal…
Introduction Glyceryl trinitrate (GTN), commonly known as nitroglycerin, is a nitrate ester utilized predominantly as a vasodilator in the management of cardiovascular disorders, particularly angina pectoris and acute heart failure. The compound was first isolated from the bark of the Calamus genus in the late eighteenth century and subsequently synthesized in the early nineteenth century,…
Introduction Digoxin is a cardiac glycoside widely employed in the management of certain cardiac conditions, most notably atrial fibrillation and heart failure. The compound is derived from the foxglove plant, Digitalis lanata, and has a well-established therapeutic profile that has evolved through centuries of clinical use. Historically, the extraction of cardiac glycosides from foxglove roots…
Introduction Diltiazem is a phenothiazine‑derived calcium channel blocker (CCB) that occupies a central position in the management of cardiovascular disorders. The drug functions primarily as a non‑diuretic, non‑beta‑adrenergic agent, exerting its therapeutic effects through modulation of L‑type calcium channels in cardiac and vascular smooth muscle. Its unique pharmacodynamic profile distinguishes it from other CCBs, such…
Introduction Verapamil is a phenylalkylamine calcium channel blocker (CCB) that has been widely employed in the management of cardiovascular disorders. Its discovery in the early 1970s marked a significant advancement in the treatment of hypertension, angina pectoris, and certain arrhythmias. The drug’s ability to inhibit L‑type voltage‑gated calcium channels in cardiac and vascular smooth muscle…
Introduction/Overview Amlodipine is a dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker (CCB) that has become a cornerstone in the management of hypertension and angina pectoris. The relevance of this agent lies in its predictable pharmacodynamic profile, favorable side‑effect spectrum, and versatility across a broad patient population. Clinicians often select amlodipine when a sustained antihypertensive effect is desired with…
Introduction / Overview Losartan is a nonpeptide antagonist of the angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptor, belonging to the class of angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs). Its primary therapeutic role has been established in the management of hypertension and in the prevention of target organ damage associated with chronic kidney disease. In addition, losartan has…