Introduction/Overview Enalapril is an orally active angiotensin‑converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor that has been widely employed in the management of arterial hypertension, chronic heart failure, and post‑myocardial infarction syndrome. Its development in the early 1980s marked a significant advance in cardiovascular pharmacotherapy, providing a therapeutic option with improved tolerability compared to earlier ACE inhibitors. Clinical relevance…
Introduction/Overview Captopril is a first‑generation angiotensin‑converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor that has played a pivotal role in the management of hypertension, heart failure, and diabetic nephropathy. Originally synthesized in the early 1970s, it was the first orally active ACE inhibitor to reach clinical practice, and its development catalyzed the extensive research that led to the current…
Introduction Definition and Overview Mannitol is a naturally occurring sugar alcohol with the chemical formula C6H14O6. It functions primarily as an osmotic diuretic and neuroprotective agent when administered intravenously, intrathecally, or orally. The pharmacologic profile of mannitol is characterized by rapid distribution to extracellular compartments, limited protein binding, and complete renal excretion without metabolic conversion….
Introduction Spironolactone is a synthetic steroidal antagonist of mineralocorticoid receptors that has been employed in clinical practice for several decades. Its primary pharmacological action involves competitive inhibition of aldosterone binding, thereby reducing sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the distal nephron. Historically, the discovery of its diuretic properties emerged from the early work of Dr….
Introduction Hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ) is a thiazide‑class diuretic that has been utilized extensively for the management of hypertension, edema associated with heart failure, hepatic cirrhosis, and nephrotic syndrome. Its mechanism of action involves inhibition of sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule of the nephron, leading to increased natriuresis and diuresis. Historically, HCTZ was introduced in…
Introduction Furosemide is a widely utilized loop diuretic that exerts potent natriuretic, diuretic, and osmotic effects through inhibition of the sodium‑potassium‑chloride cotransporter (NKCC2) located in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle. The drug’s pharmacologic profile renders it indispensable in the management of conditions characterized by fluid overload, including congestive heart failure, cirrhosis…
Introduction Definition and Overview Montelukast is a selective antagonist of cysteinyl leukotriene (CysLT) receptors, specifically targeting the CysLT1 subtype. By inhibiting leukotriene-mediated bronchoconstriction, vascular permeability, and mucus secretion, montelukast functions as a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent in the management of asthma and allergic rhinitis. The drug is marketed in oral tablet and chewable tablet forms, with…
Introduction Definition and Overview Ipratropium bromide is a short‑acting antimuscarinic bronchodilator that functions primarily as a selective antagonist of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M3) located in airway smooth muscle. It is administered via inhalation, typically in the form of a dry‑powder or aerosol, and is indicated for the symptomatic management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)…
Introduction Theophylline is a methylxanthine derivative that functions primarily as a bronchodilator and anti-inflammatory agent. It has been employed for the treatment of obstructive airway diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) since the early twentieth century. The compound was first isolated from the leaves of the tea plant (Camellia sinensis) and…
Introduction Definition and Overview Salbutamol, also referred to as albuterol in the United States, is a short‑acting β2‑adrenergic receptor agonist employed primarily as a bronchodilator in the management of reversible obstructive airway diseases. The molecule functions by stimulating β2‑adrenergic receptors on airway smooth muscle, resulting in relaxation and subsequent improvement in airflow. Its pharmacologic properties…