Introduction Definition and Overview Morphine is a naturally occurring opioid alkaloid isolated from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). It functions as a potent analgesic by acting primarily on the mu‑opioid receptor (MOR) within the central nervous system. Its pharmacologic profile encompasses analgesia, sedation, and a range of side effects that necessitate careful clinical management. Historical…
Introduction Celecoxib represents a class of selective cyclo‑oxygenase‑2 (COX‑2) inhibitors employed primarily for the treatment of pain, inflammation, and various inflammatory arthropathies. The drug was first synthesized in the early 1990s and received regulatory approval in the late 1990s, marking a significant advancement in non‑steroidal anti‑inflammatory drug (NSAID) therapy. Its selective inhibition of COX‑2, coupled…
Introduction Diclofenac is a non‑selective cyclo‑oxygenase (COX) inhibitor that has been widely adopted for the management of pain, inflammation, and fever. As a member of the phenylacetic acid class of non‑steroidal anti‑inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), it is frequently administered in acute and chronic settings, including osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, musculoskeletal injuries, and postoperative analgesia. The therapeutic profile…
Introduction Definition and Overview Ibuprofen is a member of the propionic acid class of nonsteroidal anti‑inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). It functions primarily as an inhibitor of cyclo‑oxygenase (COX) enzymes, thereby reducing the synthesis of prostaglandins that mediate pain, fever, and inflammation. The drug is widely used in both outpatient and inpatient settings for the management of…
Introduction Tubocurarine is a naturally occurring alkaloid extracted from the plant Curcuma tuberosa (also known as Curcuma longa in certain cultivars). It functions as a non‑depolarising neuromuscular blocking agent, exerting its effect through competitive antagonism at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located on the skeletal muscle endplate. Historically, tubocurarine was first isolated in the late nineteenth century…
Introduction Succinylcholine chloride is a synthetic, short‑acting depolarizing neuromuscular blocker employed predominantly to facilitate tracheal intubation and to provide skeletal muscle relaxation during surgical procedures. The compound serves as a prototype for depolarizing agents, illustrating key pharmacological principles such as receptor activation, ion channel modulation, and rapid metabolic clearance. This monograph addresses the pharmacological profile…
Introduction/Overview Atenolol is a selective β1-adrenergic receptor antagonist widely employed in the management of cardiovascular disorders. Its pharmacologic profile, characterized by high aqueous solubility and limited hepatic metabolism, distinguishes it from many other β‑blockers and influences its clinical application, safety, and patient selection. The clinical relevance of atenolol lies in its established efficacy for hypertension,…
Introduction / Overview Propranolol, a non‑selective β‑adrenergic antagonist, has been a cornerstone in cardiovascular pharmacotherapy since its introduction in the early 1960s. Its broad therapeutic profile extends beyond hypertension, encompassing arrhythmias, angina pectoris, migraine prophylaxis, and anxiolytic effects. The drug’s historical significance, coupled with ongoing research into novel indications, renders its study essential for both…
Introduction Definition and Overview Prazosin is a selective antagonist of the alpha‑1 (α1) adrenergic receptors, predominantly acting on the peripheral vasculature. By competitively inhibiting receptor binding, it induces vasodilation, thereby reducing systemic vascular resistance and blood pressure. The drug is available in immediate‑release and extended‑release formulations, with dosing typically ranging from 1 to 8 mg per…
Introduction Definition and Overview Scopolamine is a naturally occurring tropane alkaloid derived from members of the Solanaceae family, particularly Hyoscyamus niger and Datura stramonium. It functions primarily as a non-selective antagonist of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs), thereby inhibiting parasympathetic neurotransmission in both central and peripheral tissues. The drug is commercially available in oral tablets, transdermal…