1. Introduction/Overview Antiemetic agents constitute a pivotal component of therapeutic strategies for the management of nausea and vomiting across a broad spectrum of clinical settings. The gastrointestinal tract plays a central role in the emetic reflex, and pharmacologic modulation of its neurochemical pathways offers significant benefits in patient comfort, adherence to treatment, and overall outcomes….
Introduction / Overview Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) remains a significant gastrointestinal disorder worldwide, manifesting as mucosal erosions in the stomach or duodenum that result in pain, bleeding, or perforation. The prevalence of ulcerative lesions continues to pose diagnostic and therapeutic challenges, particularly in populations with increasing use of non‑steroidal anti‑inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and proton‑pump inhibitor…
Introduction/Overview Calcium homeostasis represents a critical physiological process regulated by a complex endocrine network. Within this network, parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D metabolites, calcitonin, and sex steroid hormones collaboratively maintain serum calcium concentrations and influence bone remodeling dynamics. Disruption of these regulatory pathways frequently manifests as osteoporotic bone loss, contributing to increased fracture risk across…
Introduction/Overview Calcium homeostasis represents a cornerstone of endocrine regulation, with systemic concentrations tightly controlled to sustain skeletal integrity, neuromuscular function, and cellular signaling. Perturbations in calcium balance are implicated in a spectrum of clinical disorders, most notably osteoporosis, osteomalacia, hyperparathyroidism, and hypoparathyroidism. The therapeutic armamentarium targeting calcium metabolism encompasses vitamin D analogs, calcium supplements, calcimimetics,…
Introduction / Overview Uterine contractility is a critical physiological process that underlies a range of obstetric and gynecologic conditions, from normal parturition to pathological states such as preterm labor, postpartum hemorrhage, and uterine atony. Pharmacologic manipulation of uterine tone is, therefore, a cornerstone of maternal-fetal medicine and obstetric anesthesia. The agents employed to either stimulate…
Introduction / Overview Oral contraceptives (OCs) constitute a cornerstone of modern reproductive health, offering reliable, reversible, and relatively low‑cost contraception to millions of women worldwide. Emergency contraception (EC) provides a critical safety net for unintended pregnancies, bridging gaps when standard contraception fails or is unavailable. The clinical relevance of these drug classes is underscored by…
Introduction/Overview Estrogens and progestins constitute the core of female reproductive hormone replacement strategies. Their therapeutic application extends beyond contraception to the mitigation of menopausal symptoms, osteoporosis prevention, and management of certain gynecologic disorders. The clinical relevance of these agents is underscored by the prevalence of hormone-related conditions and the widespread adoption of hormone replacement therapy…
Introduction and Overview Endocrine pharmacology encompasses the study of hormone‑based therapeutics, with corticosteroids representing a pivotal class of agents that modulate diverse physiological pathways. Glucocorticoids, which primarily influence carbohydrate, protein, and lipid metabolism, as well as immune function, and mineralocorticoids, which regulate sodium and potassium balance, are frequently prescribed across a broad spectrum of clinical…
Introduction/Overview Diabetes mellitus, particularly type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), represents a growing global health challenge, characterized by chronic hyperglycaemia resulting from insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion. Oral antidiabetic drugs constitute the cornerstone of pharmacologic management, offering diverse mechanisms to ameliorate glycaemic control while addressing underlying metabolic derangements. Understanding the pharmacological underpinnings of these agents…
Introduction/Overview Insulin remains the cornerstone of therapy for patients with diabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by impaired glucose regulation. The clinical relevance of insulin pharmacology is underscored by the global prevalence of diabetes, the high morbidity associated with hyperglycaemia, and the necessity for precise glycaemic control to prevent long‑term complications such as retinopathy,…