Category: Pharmacology

Introduction / Overview General anesthetics are indispensable agents in modern medicine, facilitating surgical procedures and invasive diagnostic interventions by inducing reversible loss of consciousness, amnesia, analgesia, muscle relaxation, and autonomic stability. Their clinical utility extends beyond the operating room, encompassing critical care sedation and procedural sedation in outpatient settings. Understanding the pharmacological principles that govern…

Introduction Hematinics encompass a broad spectrum of nutrients and pharmacologic agents that support erythropoiesis and maintain adequate hemoglobin concentrations. Renal involvement is pivotal, as the kidneys both modulate erythropoietin (EPO) synthesis and influence the metabolism and clearance of many hematinic drugs. Historically, the discovery of EPO in the 1940s and its subsequent recombinant production in…

Introduction/Overview Thrombolytic agents are indispensable tools in the management of acute thrombotic events affecting the cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and renal systems. Their ability to restore perfusion by catalysing fibrin degradation supports survival and functional recovery in conditions such as acute myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, pulmonary embolism, and renal artery thrombosis. The clinical relevance of these agents…

Introduction / Overview Platelet aggregation represents a pivotal step in hemostasis and is frequently implicated in the pathogenesis of atherothrombotic events, acute coronary syndromes, and ischemic strokes. Antiplatelet agents, by inhibiting platelet function, reduce the risk of arterial thrombosis and are integral to contemporary cardiovascular therapy. The renal system, through filtration and excretion, plays a…

Introduction/Overview Hypolipidemic therapy represents a cornerstone of cardiovascular disease prevention and management. Dyslipidemia, characterized by elevated low‑density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL‑C), triglycerides, or reduced high‑density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL‑C), contributes substantially to atherosclerotic plaque formation and subsequent ischemic events. The selection of an appropriate lipid‑lowering agent relies upon a comprehensive understanding of pharmacologic classes, mechanisms of action,…

Introduction/Overview The management of cardiac arrhythmias is a cornerstone of cardiovascular therapeutics. Antiarrhythmic agents are employed to correct rhythm disturbances, prevent recurrence, and reduce morbidity and mortality associated with arrhythmogenic events. Their therapeutic utility is tempered by complex pharmacodynamics, variable pharmacokinetics, and a spectrum of adverse effects that necessitate careful patient selection and monitoring. A…

Introduction/Overview Angina pectoris represents a clinical manifestation of myocardial ischemia, often precipitated by transient coronary artery luminal narrowing. The therapeutic objective of antianginal drugs is to ameliorate ischemic burden by modulating myocardial oxygen demand or by augmenting coronary perfusion. This chapter delineates the pharmacological foundations, therapeutic indications, and safety profiles of the principal antianginal agents…

Introduction/Overview Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) constitute a pivotal class of cardiovascular agents that modulate intracellular calcium dynamics, thereby influencing vascular tone, myocardial contractility, and cardiac conduction. These agents have been integral to the management of hypertension, angina pectoris, arrhythmias, and certain valvular disorders. Their therapeutic versatility is matched by a complex pharmacodynamic profile that necessitates…

Introduction/Overview Management of cough is a central component of respiratory care, as cough may be a presenting symptom in a multitude of pulmonary and systemic disorders. Cough can be classified physiologically into a protective reflex and a pathological manifestation, with the latter frequently necessitating pharmacologic intervention. Antitussives and expectorants represent two principal therapeutic classes that…

Introduction/Overview Asthma remains a prevalent chronic respiratory disorder characterized by reversible airway obstruction and airway hyperresponsiveness. The therapeutic armamentarium for asthma includes inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) and leukotriene receptor antagonists (LTRAs), both of which target distinct inflammatory pathways. The clinical relevance of these agents is underscored by their role in reducing exacerbations, improving lung function, and…