Category: Pharmacology

Introduction/Overview Respiratory disorders such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and bronchiectasis frequently necessitate pharmacologic bronchodilation. Methylxanthines and anticholinergic agents represent two principal classes of bronchodilators that have been employed for decades. Both drug families exert distinct pharmacodynamic actions and possess unique pharmacokinetic profiles, which influence their clinical efficacy and safety. A thorough comprehension…

Introduction/Overview Bronchodilators constitute a fundamental class of drugs employed to alleviate bronchoconstriction in a variety of respiratory disorders, most notably asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Their clinical relevance stems from the ability to rapidly restore airway patency, thereby improving ventilation, reducing dyspnea, and preventing exacerbations. The pharmacologic modulation of airway smooth muscle tone…

Introduction/Overview Gout is a metabolic disease characterized by episodic acute arthritis precipitated by monosodium urate crystal deposition within joints. The inflammatory cascade triggered by crystal phagocytosis leads to intense pain, swelling, and functional limitation. Pharmacologic intervention targets both the acute inflammatory response and the underlying hyperuricemia, thereby reducing flare frequency and chronic joint damage. Understanding…

Introduction/Overview Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by chronic synovial inflammation, progressive cartilage destruction, and bone erosions. The therapeutic landscape has expanded dramatically over the past decades, now encompassing non‑steroidal anti‑inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), glucocorticoids, conventional synthetic disease‑modifying antirheumatic drugs (csDMARDs), biologic DMARDs (bDMARDs), and targeted synthetic DMARDs (tsDMARDs). These agents differ markedly…

Introduction / Overview Selective cyclo‑oxygenase‑2 (COX‑2) inhibitors represent a distinct class of non‑steroidal anti‑inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). They were developed to retain pain‑relieving and anti‑inflammatory efficacy while reducing gastrointestinal toxicity associated with non‑selective NSAIDs. The clinical relevance of these agents lies in their role in managing arthritic conditions, acute musculoskeletal pain, and chronic inflammatory diseases, often…

Introduction/Overview Non‑selective non‑steroidal anti‑inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) constitute a foundational therapeutic class in the management of pain, fever, and inflammatory conditions. Their broad utilization spans acute musculoskeletal disorders, rheumatic diseases, postoperative analgesia, and various inflammatory gastrointestinal and dermatologic conditions. The ubiquity of these agents in clinical practice underscores the necessity for a comprehensive understanding of their…

1. Introduction/Overview Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) is among the most widely utilized medications worldwide, serving roles that span from symptom relief in mild inflammatory conditions to secondary prevention of cardiovascular events. The importance of aspirin in contemporary practice is underscored by its inclusion in standard treatment algorithms for acute coronary syndrome, stroke prevention, rheumatoid arthritis, and…

Introduction Inflammation is a complex, multi‑cellular response to harmful stimuli, orchestrated through a myriad of signaling molecules. Among these, eicosanoids—bioactive lipids derived from 20‑carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids—play a pivotal role in modulating vascular tone, leukocyte recruitment, and pain perception. The eicosanoid pathway has become a cornerstone of pharmacologic intervention in a spectrum of inflammatory disorders,…

Introduction/Overview Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5‑HT) is a pivotal modulator of vascular tone, platelet aggregation, gastrointestinal motility, and central nervous system (CNS) neurotransmission. Autacoids that mimic or block serotonin’s actions—serotonin agonists and antagonists—play crucial roles in therapeutic and diagnostic settings. Their clinical relevance spans management of migraine, irritable bowel syndrome, pulmonary hypertension, and acute coronary syndromes, among…

Introduction/Overview Histamine is a biogenic amine that functions as a key autacoid in the human body, mediating a wide array of physiological and pathological responses. It is released by mast cells, basophils, enterochromaffin‑like cells, and neurons, and exerts its effects through four G protein‑coupled receptor subtypes (H1, H2, H3, H4). The clinical relevance of histamine…