Category: Pharmacology

Cough Cough, a common symptom, can be categorized as either productive or non-productive. A productive cough expels mucus or phlegm, whereas a non-productive cough does not produce these secretions [1]​​. The treatment of a cough depends largely on its underlying cause. For a productive cough, mucoactive medications like expectorants are used. Expectorants aim to increase…

Dementia and Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease Alzheimer’s disease is a brain disorder that progressively worsens over time. It’s characterized by changes in the brain that lead to deposits of certain proteins. Alzheimer’s disease causes the brain to shrink and brain cells to eventually die. It is the most common cause of dementia—a gradual decline in…

Asthma Bronchial asthma is a condition characterized by bronchial hyperreactivity and inflammation. The activation of IgE bound to mast cells by the antigen leads to the degranulation of mast cells, resulting in the release of various mediators, such as leukotrienes, prostaglandins, platelet-activating factor, histamine, and protease enzymes. These mediators can cause bronchoconstriction and inflammation, leading…

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, also known as Koch’s bacillus, is a species of pathogenic bacteria that is the causative agent of tuberculosis. It was first discovered in 1882 by Robert Koch1. The bacterium has an unusual, waxy coating on its cell surface primarily due to the presence of mycolic acid. This coating makes the cells impervious to Gram…

Introduction The administration of drugs is an essential aspect of medical practice. It involves the process of delivering medication to a patient’s body through various routes. The appropriate route of administration for a given situation depends on several factors, including the drug’s physical and chemical properties and patient-related factors. This chapter discusses the different routes…

Administration of drugs to human subjects ranges from oral, sublingual, rectal, intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intradermal, and intrathecal. The method of administration selected is dependent upon a multitude of variables, such as the distinctive characteristics of the drug, the current condition of the patient, and the projected therapeutic outcome. It is important for healthcare providers to…

Opioid Analgesics: Introduction Opioid analgesics are a class of drugs primarily used for pain management. They work by binding to specific receptors in the brain and spinal cord, reducing the perception of pain. Derived from the opium poppy or synthesized in the lab, opioids have been used for centuries for their analgesic and sedative properties….